College of Freemasonry

The Futuwwa brotherhoods were corporative organizations of young men in Islamic societies, especially in the medieval Near East. The term "Futuwwa", which arose in the 8th century CE, generally means "youth" and refers to the qualities and characteristics of the "young man" (Arabic "fatā," pl. "fityān"). It embodies meanings such as "youthfulness, young manhood, youthful behavior." The Futuwwa brotherhoods represented a widespread and multifaceted phenomenon. The term “Futuwwa” can describe a variety of movements and organizations with distinct orientations.

Concept and Ideals

While the term “Futuwwa” emerged as an abstract concept in the early Middle Ages, its root word "fatā" frequently appears in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, embodying virtues associated with noblemen, such as generosity and hospitality, alongside bravery and loyalty to one’s tribe. With the rise of Islam, "Futuwwa" acquired a religious aspect, emphasizing the virtues of those who fought in the cause of jihad or embraced the ascetic practices of Sufism. Initially, individual virtues were central, but over time, the fourth caliph and son-in-law of the Prophet, Ali, became the unmatched ideal of the “fatā,” serving as the patron of Futuwwa due to his valor. The phrase “No sword but Dhu'l-Fiqar! No fatā but Ali!” became the motto of Futuwwa circles.

The Kuran also uses "fatā" exclusively in positive contexts, allowing figures like Ibrahim (Abraham), Yusuf (Joseph), or the Companions of the Cave (Ashab al-Kahf) to be viewed as models of Futuwwa. Beyond individual virtues, Futuwwa developed "brotherhood" elements, including rites and rituals for groups of young men committed to common ideals. Initiation rites involved girding with the "pants of Futuwwa" and drinking from the "cup of Futuwwa" filled with salty water, marking one’s entry into an elite-like brotherhood.

Membership progressed through several stages. An applicant first approached a full member for guidance and provisional acceptance. After a probation period, he received a simple apron as a novice and, later, the "pants of Futuwwa" to become a full member. The Futuwwa created a distinct social structure with hierarchical relationships, organized by “younger” and “older” members or familial terms like “son,” “father,” and “grandfather.” This hierarchy constructed ideological lineages tracing back to Ali or even to the Prophet Muhammad.

Alongside this hierarchical order, Futuwwa groups also distinguished between members who pledged only by word and those who had taken the ceremonial drink. Some members also received a sword as part of their commitment, indicating additional responsibilities.

Ideal and Social Reality

As Islam spread, "fityān" (plural of fatā) became a common term for young men’s groups from diverse social, ethnic, and religious backgrounds who bonded independently of family, profession, or tribe. Their ties were marked by solidarity, mutual care, and a community of goods. However, "fityān" were also often associated with social disorder in urban life, seen as vagabonds, wanderers, or lawless groups. Such groups, known as “'Ayyārūn,” sometimes formed gangs that posed social disturbances or even acted as irregular police forces, hired for security roles in the absence of official authority.

By the 11th century, groups of “fityān” and “'Ayyārūn” gained appeal among upper social classes, inspiring literature that idealized Futuwwa values. Sufism also began engaging with Futuwwa; classical virtues were incorporated into Sufi texts, and Futuwwa became closely associated with Sufi ideals.

Historically, Futuwwa evolved into a code of conduct and honor. Frequently described as the “oriental ideal of nobility,” this ideal encompassed a variety of social groups. Futuwwa could signify the Islamic equivalent of European chivalry, brotherhood in Sufi communities, guild-like artisans’ customs, or the esprit de corps of city militias or aristocratic youth clubs. In Persia, Futuwwa also appeared in courtly “mirrors for princes” literature and folklore.

The Futuwwa concept blended diverse influences. Arabs brought the pre-Islamic “fatā” nobleman ideal to the Middle East in the 7th century CE, which evolved into the religious ideal of the jihadi warrior. In conquered lands, it fused with pre-Islamic traditions, particularly the corporate societal structures of the Sasanian Empire in Persia. Artisans in Seleucia-Ctesiphon widely practiced these traditions, including initiation rites through girding, which reflected a Zoroastrian influence.

Some scholars argue that the “'Ayyārūn” militia-like groups of young men in Islamic cities may also have pre-Islamic roots, descended from minor Sasanian nobility or lower aristocracy. Although their social standing declined under the Umayyads, many regained influence during the Abbasid era, reintroducing chivalric ideals. They developed a strong esprit de corps with distinctive etiquette and ethos, gaining a mixed reputation as independent yet respected figures. Persian literature later romanticized these traditions, with “jawānmardī” as a synonym for Futuwwa.

An alternative tradition views “'Ayyārūn” as Futuwwa adherents aligned with voluntary jihadi groups. By the 9th century, Futuwwa included military elements, with Futuwwa organizations combining their original ideals with voluntary militia functions. These groups frequently merged Futuwwa traditions with resistance movements against invaders or local rebellions.

By the 12th century, the Futuwwa had integrated into formal Sufi organizations, guilds, and even military training. Abbasid caliphs like al-Nasir li-Din Allah institutionalized Futuwwa ideals, creating official orders that blended Sufi spirituality, chivalric principles, and state allegiance.

References

• Cahen, C. (1968). Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A General Survey of the Material and Spiritual Culture. Sidgwick & Jackson.

• Lapidus, I. M. (2014). A History of Islamic Societies (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Rosenthal, F. (1960). The Muslim Concept of Freedom. Brill.

• Roberts, J. M. (1972). The Mythology of Secret Societies. Scribner.

• Sedgwick, M. (2003). Sufism: The Essentials. American University in Cairo Press.

• Articles from the Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (JESHO).

• Articles from Der Islam.